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210 Kalyuga Copyright 2006, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited. hand, recently established cognitive load effects in multimedia design for more advanced learners suggest eliminating non-essential redundant representations in multimedia formats and gradually reducing levels of guidance by increasing the relative share of problem-based and exploratory environments as levels of user proficiency in the domain increase (Kalyuga, 2005). Thus, studies of expert-novice differences have demonstrated that organized schemabased knowledge structures in long-term memory are the most critical factor influencing proficient performance. These cognitive constructs effectively reduce or eliminate severe processing limitations of our cognitive system and fundamentally alter characteristics of our performance. They guide allocation of attentional resources and significantly influence our perception of multimedia materials. Non-optimal multimedia formats may overload limited attentional capacity of working memory. As a consequence, multimedia presentations which include information that is essential and appropriate for novices, may need to be re-designed by eliminating redundant information for more expert individuals in order to optimize cognitive resources. An important implication of these findings is that multimedia needs to be tailored to levels of user expertise in a domain. To be able to dynamically select multimedia formats optimal for individual users, it is necessary not only to understand cognitive mechanisms that influence efficiency of multimedia information presentations, but also to have suitable methods for collecting information about user levels of proficiency in a domain suitable for real-time applications. User Modelling in Adaptive Hypermedia Environments Hypermedia systems add navigation support to traditional linear multimedia environments. This capability provides appropriate levels of user interactivity and user control implemented as an organized network of hyperlinks that allow nonlinear access to graphics, sound, animation, and other multimedia elements. Adaptive hypermedia environments accommodate user characteristics (knowledge, interests, goals, etc.) into an explicit user model and then use this model to adapt interactions with each user to her or his characteristics and needs, for example, by providing adaptive content selection and presentation, or suggesting a set of most relevant links to proceed (see Brusilovsky, 2001; De Bra & Calvi, 1998; Kobsa, 2001, for comprehensive overviews of the field). Adapting the content modality to an individual user (selecting the most relevant modes of presentation from text, narration, animation, video, etc.) is an important part of adaptive presentation techniques based on the user-modeling technology. User models (student or learner models in learning systems) represent the key component of an adaptive hypermedia system. These models are multi-dimensional constructs that may include many different user characteristics in addition to subject matter knowledge, for example, level of computer literacy, experience in using specific software applications, learning styles, background, preferences, goals, interests, and so forth. User models are

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