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at 1.5 Mbit/s in the DS-1 (digital signal) format. The European equivalent is E-1 at 2 Mbit/s. U.S. and international standards There are two main telecommunications standards: ANSI, used in North America and parts of the Pacific Rim, and the ITU-T standards, used in the rest of the world. The ANSI hierarchy is based on a digital signal (DS0) of 64 kbit/s. Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) The early digital trunk circuits multiplexed a large number of voice circuits into a single high data-rate channel. The systems at the remote ends were not absolutely locked together; instead, each runs off a local reference clock. These clocks were classed as plesiochronous; plesio is a Latin term derived from the Greek meaning near, so plesiochronous refers to clocks that are in near synchronism. The early data circuits were asynchronous; the clocks were derived from simple crystal oscillators, which could vary from the nominal by a few parts per million. Large receive buffers are used to manage the data flows. In PDH networks, to cope with terminal equipment running on slightly different clocks, extra bits are stuffed into the data stream. This bit stuffing ensures that a slower receiver can keep up with the real payload rate by simply dropping the extra bits. To extract a single voice circuit from a DS3, the channel has to be demultiplexed back to DS1 channels. To build trunk circuits in rings around a country, each city passed would have to demultiplex and remultiplex the data stream to extract a few voice circuits. Synchronous networks (SONET) To avoid the multiplexing issues and the overheads of bit stuffing, highly synchronous networks were developed. By referencing terminal equipment to a single cesium standard clock, the synchronism could be ensured to a high degree of accuracy. The standard uses a byte-interleaved multiplexing scheme. The payload data is held in a fixed structure of frames. At a network terminal the signals can be added or dropped from the data stream, without the need to process the other traffic. It is rather like a conveyor belt carrying fixed size containers at a regular spacing. As the belt passes a city, you take away the containers you want, and drop new ones into gaps. The other containers pass unhindered. 26 The Technology of Video and Audio Streaming

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